The Qur'an's portrayal of Jews is central to understanding the theological roots of Islamic antisemitism. These depictions, often shaped by Muhammad’s evolving relationship with Jewish communities, reflect theological concerns and socio-political struggles.
By Dr. Tim Orr
The Qur'an's portrayal of Jews is central to understanding the theological roots of Islamic antisemitism. These depictions, often shaped by Muhammad’s evolving relationship with Jewish communities, reflect theological concerns and socio-political struggles. Over time, the Qur'anic narrative transitions from early conciliatory tones in Mecca to more confrontational rhetoric later in Medinan. To fully grasp how these theological constructs contributed to Islamic antisemitism, it is essential to explore the socio-political context that underpinned these developments and how they shaped Islamic doctrine regarding Jews.
During the Meccan period of Muhammad’s life, his primary focus was preaching God's oneness to a polytheistic society. As he sought to establish Islam as a monotheistic faith, he drew heavily on the shared Abrahamic heritage of Judaism and Christianity. In these early years, there was little conflict with the Jews, and the Qur'an reflects a respectful attitude toward them. This phase of Muhammad’s life can be characterized by optimism and inclusivity.
Imagine the young Prophet Muhammad standing before the Kaaba in Mecca as the vibrant marketplace sounds hummed around him. His audience was largely skeptical, and many openly mocked his message. Yet, Muhammad persisted, urging the people to recognize the oneness of God. In this context, the Jews, as fellow monotheists, were seen as natural allies. The Qur'an at this time reflected the hope that the Jews would recognize Muhammad's prophethood and embrace Islam. In Qur'an 2:62, it is stated, “Indeed, those who believed and those who were Jews or Christians or Sabeans—those [among them] who believed in Allah and the Last Day and did righteousness—will have their reward with their Lord, and no fear will there be concerning them, nor will they grieve” (Esposito, 2002). This verse reflects a broad inclusivity, emphasizing the possibility of salvation for all who worship the one God, including Jews.
Here, Muhammad’s early attempts to position Islam within the broader Abrahamic tradition become evident. Much like a craftsman carefully placing the final pieces of a mosaic, Muhammad’s message was one of continuity—Islam was not a new religion but rather a revival of the monotheism taught by Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. He hoped that by acknowledging this shared heritage, Jews would join him in his mission. The theological framework during this time emphasized commonality rather than division, with Islam portrayed as a continuation of what had come before.
The migration (Hijra) to Medina in 622 CE marked a dramatic shift in Muhammad’s prophetic mission and his relationship with the Jewish tribes. Upon arriving in Medina, Muhammad was not just a religious leader; he was also tasked with governing a growing community of Muslims, and his political responsibilities began to intertwine with his spiritual leadership. Medina was home to several powerful Jewish tribes, including the Banu Qaynuqa, Banu Nadir, and Banu Qurayza. At first, Muhammad sought to forge alliances with these tribes, crafting the Constitution of Medina, which established cooperation and peaceful coexistence among Muslims and Jews.
Picture the bustling city of Medina. The streets are filled with traders, scholars, and leaders from different communities. Muhammad, freshly settled in his new home, meets with the elders of the Jewish tribes in a formal council. The air is thick with diplomacy as both sides weigh the potential benefits of an alliance. In these early days, Muhammad took care to honor Jewish traditions. He fasted on the Day of Ashura, a practice observed by the Jews, and even directed his followers to pray to face Jerusalem, aligning with Jewish customs as a sign of respect (Peters, 1996). The hope was that the Jews of Medina would see Islam as a continuation of their faith and recognize Muhammad’s role as a prophet.
For a time, this arrangement worked. The Constitution of Medina ensured that the Muslim and Jewish communities could coexist, allowing each group to practice its religion. However, tensions soon arose as the Jewish tribes began to resist Muhammad's claims to prophethood. Unlike the early Meccan period, where theological arguments remained relatively abstract, the Medinan period was marked by the concrete realities of political power, alliances, and tribal loyalties. The Jews, while initially accepting Muhammad as a political leader, were hesitant to embrace him as a religious figure.
This refusal struck at the heart of Muhammad’s mission. As a prophet, he believed that his message was universal, and the Jewish tribes’ rejection of his prophethood was seen not just as a political issue but as a theological one. The Qur’an reflects this shift, with verses increasingly critical of the Jews. For instance, in Qur’an 3:78, it is said, “And indeed, there is among them a party who alter the Scripture with their tongues, so you may think it is from the Scripture, but it is not from the Scripture. And they say, ‘This is from Allah,’ but it is not from Allah. And they speak untruth about Allah while they know” (Esposito, 2002).
This verse marks a turning point. Muhammad’s frustration with the Jewish tribes was no longer merely political; it was rooted in what he perceived as their deliberate distortion of divine truth. In his view, the Jews were not just rejecting him; they were rejecting God’s final message. The theological tone of the Qur’an began to shift accordingly, with increasing emphasis on Jewish transgressions and their failure to recognize Muhammad’s prophethood.
As tensions between Muhammad and the Jewish tribes escalated, the political consequences became dire. The Banu Qaynuqa were the first tribe to be expelled from Medina after a skirmish that broke out between them and the Muslims. Later, the Banu Nadir were also exiled, accused of conspiring with Muhammad’s enemies. But the fate of the Banu Qurayza would have a lasting impact on Islamic-Jewish relations. After the Battle of the Trench in 627 CE, the Banu Qurayza were accused of betraying the Muslim community by allying with the Quraysh, Muhammad’s enemies from Mecca. In response, Muhammad ordered the execution of the tribe’s male members and the enslavement of its women and children.
The Qur'an’s evolving narrative during this time provided theological justification for these actions. In Qur’an 5:64, the Jews are accused of sowing corruption and kindling the fire of war against the Muslims: “The Jews say, ‘The hand of Allah is chained.’ Chained are their hands, and cursed are they for what they say. [...] Every time they kindled the fire of war [against you], Allah extinguished it. And they strive throughout the land [causing] corruption, and Allah does not like corrupters” (Esposito, 2002).
In this verse, Muhammad’s frustration with the Jewish tribes is palpable. A narrative of betrayal and rebellion had replaced the initial hope of cooperation. The Qur'an depicts the Jews as having broken their covenant with God, justifying their punishment. Theologically, this shift represented a departure from the earlier tone of inclusivity and respect. Instead, the Jews were now portrayed as a community that had repeatedly rejected divine guidance from Moses to Muhammad.
Imagine the tension in the city of Medina after the execution of the Banu Qurayza. The air is thick with fear and uncertainty. Now a seasoned leader, Muhammad stands before his followers and speaks of justice, using the Qur'an to justify his actions. The theological construct that emerges from these events is one of divine retribution—those who reject God’s messengers will face severe consequences. This harsh stance is not just a political necessity for Muhammad; it is a theological imperative grounded in his belief that the Jews had consistently broken their covenant with God.
In the later Medinan period, as Muhammad consolidated his political power, the Qur'an’s tone toward the Jews became increasingly severe. The verses from this period reflect a theological condemnation beyond individual Jewish tribes and speak to a broader narrative of Jewish disbelief and transgression. By now, the hope that the Jews would accept Muhammad’s prophethood had dissipated, and the Qur’an’s language grew more confrontational.
Qur'an 5:82 states, “You will surely find the most intense of the people in animosity toward the believers [to be] the Jews and those who associate others with Allah.” This verse represents the culmination of the theological shift that had taken place throughout Muhammad’s time in Medina. The Jews were no longer seen as potential allies or fellow monotheists; they were portrayed as enemies of the Muslim community, both spiritually and politically.
The theological justification for this hatred was rooted in the idea that the Jews had continually rejected divine guidance. From a theological perspective, the Jews were seen as people who had been given multiple opportunities to follow God’s true path but who had consistently chosen to rebel. This narrative is reinforced throughout the later Medinan verses, where the Jews are accused of distorting their scriptures, breaking their covenants, and conspiring against the Muslim community.
One might imagine Muhammad in his later years, reflecting on the long and difficult journey that had brought him from Mecca to Medina. The early days of hope and inclusivity were far behind him. Now, as a leader of a powerful and growing Islamic state, he faced the realities of political survival. The theological tone of the Qur’an had shifted to reflect these new realities, portraying the Jews as enemies of the faith who had been sealed.
Tim Orr is an Evangelical minister, conference speaker, and interfaith consultant with over 30 years of experience in cross-cultural ministry. He holds six degrees, including a master’s in Islamic studies from the Islamic College in London. Tim taught Religious Studies for 15 years at Indiana University Columbus and is now a Congregations and Polarization Project research associate at the Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University Indianapolis. He has spoken at universities, including Oxford, and mosques throughout the U.K. His research focuses on American Evangelicalism, Islamic antisemitism, and Islamic feminism, and he has published widely, including three books.
This is an adaptation of a portion of a paper I wrote titled Islamic Antisemitism: A Critical Examination of Theological Foundations and Historical Manifestations, which I have yet to publish.