This article explores the historical context, key theological concepts, and specific instances of policy influenced by eschatological views, offering a comprehensive understanding of the unique dynamics driving Iran's actions on the global stage.
By Dr. Tim Orr
I wonder if the protestors around the world realize they're unwittingly aiding an Iranian eschatological (Endtimes) vision. Yes, their actions are furthering the grand scheme of Iranian Shi'i eschatology, the branch of Islamic theology dealing with the end times and the return of the Twelfth Imam. In this sense, they are useful idiots, playing a role in furthering Iran's foreign policy. Understanding these religious beliefs is crucial to comprehending the country's interactions with the world, affecting its diplomatic, military, and strategic decisions.
As someone who has studied at the Islamic College in London, a Shia institution, and received an MA in Islamic Studies, I have delved into these eschatological beliefs under the Twelver system, the movement in Iran. My academic journey includes publishing four articles in Shia peer-reviewed journals, including one at the prestigious University of Tehran. This background has given me unique insights into how Shia eschatology shapes Iran's political and social dynamics.
This article explores the historical context, key theological concepts, and specific instances of policy influenced by eschatological views, offering a comprehensive understanding of the unique dynamics driving Iran's actions on the global stage.
Eschatology, the study of the end times, is central to Shi'i belief. It encompasses the return of the Mahdi, the final judgment, and the ultimate triumph of good over evil. These beliefs are theoretical and have practical implications for the faithful, influencing their worldview and actions. Eschatological concepts deeply impact political and social life in Iran, where Shi'i Islam is the state religion (Sachedina, 1981).
In Iran, eschatological beliefs permeate various aspects of life, from politics to education and culture. The state promotes these beliefs through religious education and public discourse, reinforcing the notion that Iran is a key player in the cosmic battle between good and evil. This ideological framework shapes national identity and morally justifies Iran's domestic and foreign policies, portraying them as divinely ordained missions.
The concept of the Mahdi in Shia eschatology fosters a utopian vision for Iran's foreign policy by underpinning the belief that the ultimate goal of the Islamic Republic is to prepare for the return of the Twelfth Imam. This eschatological figure is expected to usher in an era of justice, peace, and divine rule, profoundly influencing the ideological and strategic frameworks guiding Iran's interactions on the global stage.
Iran's leadership is instilled with a sense of divine mission through the belief in the Mahdi's return. This mission is not just about national interests but about establishing justice and moral order on a global scale. Iran sees itself as a vanguard of this transformative process, positioning its foreign policy within a moral and religious duty framework rather than mere political pragmatism.
The Mahdi narrative emphasizes resistance against oppression and injustice, translating into Iran's staunch anti-imperialist stance. This perspective fosters alliances with other groups and nations perceived as oppressed or marginalized, such as Hezbollah in Lebanon and the Houthis in Yemen. Iran's foreign policy thus becomes a tool to support movements aligned with this eschatological vision, aiming to create a bloc of nations and groups that resist Western hegemony and Zionism.
While there are sectarian divides within Islam, the Mahdi's return is believed to transcend these differences, uniting the Muslim world under a single righteous leadership. Iran's foreign policy often includes efforts to bridge Sunni-Shia divides, promoting a vision of Islamic unity that serves its broader eschatological goals. Initiatives for dialogue and cooperation among Muslim countries are part of this strategy.
The eschatological vision encourages a long-term perspective in policy-making. Iran's leaders often emphasize strategic patience, seeing their efforts as part of a divine timeline that may not yield immediate results but is ultimately destined to succeed. This outlook can lead to a resilient foreign policy in the face of setbacks and sanctions, sustained by the belief in an eventual divine victory.
The eschatological belief in the Mahdi fosters a sense of moral and ideological consistency in Iran's foreign policy. Actions and alliances are often justified based on strategic interests and through the lens of religious and moral righteousness. This can result in uncompromising policies driven by ideological commitments rather than flexible diplomacy.
Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the architect of the Islamic Revolution 1979, was a prominent Shi'i cleric with a deep understanding of Islamic theology and jurisprudence. His teachings and writings extensively covered various aspects of Shi'i belief, including eschatology. Khomeini's interpretation of eschatology played a pivotal role in shaping the ideology of the Islamic Republic and its foreign policy (Martin, 2000).
Khomeini's theological education and political activism were deeply intertwined. His extensive writings on Islamic governance and eschatology laid the groundwork for the ideological transformation that led to the Islamic Revolution. Khomeini's ability to articulate a vision that combined religious fervor with political pragmatism resonated with a broad segment of Iranian society, catalyzing a revolutionary movement that sought to restore Islamic values and governance.
The 1979 Islamic Revolution was a pivotal moment in Iran's history, leading to the establishment of the Islamic Republic under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. His emphasis on the Mahdi's return framed the revolution as a step towards preparing society for this event. This eschatological narrative was used to justify the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy and establishing a theocratic state (Milani, 2008).
The revolution's success is partly attributed to the powerful eschatological rhetoric employed by Khomeini and his followers. By presenting the struggle against the Shah as part of a divine mission, the revolutionaries could mobilize a broad support base across different segments of society. The promise of an impending divine intervention created a sense of urgency and legitimacy, encouraging people to endure hardships and sacrifices for the greater eschatological goal.
Khomeini believed establishing an Islamic government was necessary to prepare the world for the Mahdi's return. He viewed the revolution and the creation of an Islamic state as fulfilling divine prophecy and setting the stage for the end times. This belief was symbolic and a driving force behind his political actions and decisions (Khomeini, 1981).
Khomeini's eschatological vision transformed political discourse in Iran. He framed the struggle against the Shah and Western influence as part of a broader divine plan, casting the revolutionaries as righteous warriors in a cosmic battle. This framing galvanized public support and legitimized the revolutionary leadership, embedding eschatological expectations into the fabric of the new Islamic Republic's political culture.
One of Khomeini's most significant contributions to Shi'i political thought was the doctrine of Wilayat al-Faqih, or the Guardianship of the Jurist. This principle posits that in the absence of the Mahdi, a qualified Islamic jurist should lead the Muslim community. Khomeini argued that this jurist could implement Islamic law and ensure justice, preparing society for the Mahdi's return. This doctrine provided the theological basis for the theocratic governance structure of the Islamic Republic, where the Supreme Leader holds ultimate authority (Arjomand, 1988).
The implementation of Wilayat al-Faqih marked a profound shift in Shia political thought, transforming the role of religious scholars from advisors to supreme political authorities. This doctrine justified the consolidation of power in the hands of the Supreme Leader, whose decisions are guided by divine wisdom. It also created a framework for integrating religious doctrine with state policy, ensuring that all aspects of governance align with eschatological goals.
Under Wilayat al-Faqih, the Supreme Leader's decisions are perceived as divinely inspired, blending religious authority with political power. This fusion ensures that eschatological imperatives drive Iran's domestic and foreign policies. The doctrine also fosters a sense of religious duty among the populace, encouraging support for the regime's policies as part of a broader spiritual mission to prepare for the Mahdi's return.
Iran's foreign policy is heavily influenced by its eschatological beliefs, particularly its stance against perceived imperialist and Zionist threats. The Islamic Republic views the United States and Israel as principal adversaries, often framing conflicts with these nations in apocalyptic terms. This worldview justifies resistance against these powers as part of a larger, divinely ordained struggle between good and evil (Takeyh, 2009).
Iran's support for various proxy groups in the Middle East, including Hezbollah in Lebanon, the Houthis in Yemen, and various Shi'i militias in Iraq, can be understood through the lens of eschatology. These groups are considered part of a broader effort to prepare the ground for the Mahdi's return by resisting oppression and spreading Shi'i influence. This strategy aligns with the belief that establishing justice and combating tyranny are prerequisites for the Mahdi's reappearance (Nasr, 2006).
Iran's extensive network of proxies serves both strategic and eschatological purposes. By empowering Shi'i communities and resistance movements, Iran seeks to expand its influence and counterbalance Sunni powers in the region. This approach not only enhances Iran's geopolitical standing but also aligns with its religious mission to defend the oppressed and create conditions favorable for the Mahdi's return.
Eschatological beliefs have also influenced Iran's pursuit of nuclear capabilities. While officially stated for peaceful purposes, many within the Iranian leadership view nuclear technology as a means to ensure the country's survival and strength in a hostile world. This perspective is rooted in the belief that a strong Iran is essential for confronting the forces of evil and paving the way for the Mahdi's return (Chubin, 2006).
The development of nuclear capabilities is seen as a deterrent against perceived threats and a means of asserting Iran's sovereignty. This strategic objective is intertwined with religious imperatives, as a powerful Iran is considered a necessary leader in the Muslim world. Thus, the pursuit of nuclear technology is framed as both a practical and religious endeavor, reinforcing Iran's role in the eschatological narrative.
The Iran-Iraq War is a significant example of how eschatological beliefs influenced Iran's foreign policy. The Iranian leadership framed the conflict as a holy war against Saddam Hussein's secular regime. Ayatollah Khomeini often invoked the Mahdi's return, urging the Iranian people to view their sacrifices as part of a larger, divine plan. This eschatological framing helped mobilize the population and sustain morale despite the war's heavy toll (Hiro, 1991).
Throughout the war, Khomeini and other Iranian leaders used religious rhetoric to inspire and justify their actions. The war was depicted as a struggle between good and evil, with the Iranian forces fighting for divine justice against the tyrannical Iraqi regime. The concept of martyrdom, deeply embedded in Shi'i eschatology, was also heavily emphasized, with fallen soldiers portrayed as martyrs who had made the ultimate sacrifice for a just cause.
The prolonged nature of the war and its devastating impact on both countries underscored the conflict's eschatological dimensions. Iranian leaders consistently framed the war as a test of faith and endurance, urging the populace to remain steadfast in their divine mission. Despite overwhelming challenges and casualties, this eschatological narrative helped sustain public support for the war effort.
Iran's involvement in the Syrian Civil War further illustrates the impact of eschatology on its foreign policy. Supporting Bashar al-Assad's regime, Iran justified its intervention as a defense of Shi'i shrines and communities. The conflict was framed as part of the struggle against Takfiri (extremist Sunni) groups, which Iran views as enemies of true Islam. This narrative aligns with the eschatological belief in defending Shi'i interests and fighting against oppression in preparation for the Mahdi's return (Sariolghalam, 2013).
Iran's military and financial support for the Assad regime is viewed as part of a broader strategy to maintain a Shi'i axis of power in the region. This support is justified through the lens of eschatology, with the conflict depicted as a battle against forces that threaten the Shi'i community and the broader Islamic world. By framing its intervention in Syria as a religious duty, Iran seeks to legitimize its actions and rally support both domestically and internationally among Shi'i populations.
Iran's involvement in Syria also reflects its strategic aim to counterbalance Sunni influence and protect its regional interests. By supporting Assad, Iran ensures the survival of a key ally and maintains its access to vital geopolitical assets. This strategic calculus is deeply intertwined with religious motivations, as Iran views its actions as part of a divine mandate to uphold justice and protect Shi'i communities.
The negotiation and subsequent implementation of the JCPOA, commonly known as the Iran nuclear deal, also reflect eschatological influences. While pragmatism and economic considerations played significant roles, the Iranian leadership's decision to engage in diplomacy can be seen as a strategic move to ensure the country's survival and strength. This aligns with the belief that a powerful and resilient Iran is crucial for the eventual reappearance of the Mahdi (Parsi, 2017).
By agreeing to the JCPOA, Iran sought to alleviate international pressure and economic sanctions while preserving its nuclear capabilities. This decision was framed within an eschatological context as a necessary compromise to maintain Iran's strength and stability. The deal was portrayed as a strategic step to ensure the country could continue to pursue its eschatological goals without facing crippling external threats.
The JCPOA also highlighted the need to balance ideological commitments and pragmatic considerations in Iranian foreign policy. While maintaining a firm stance on its eschatological beliefs, Iran was willing to engage in diplomacy to safeguard its national interests. This dual approach underscores the complexity of Iran's foreign policy, where religious imperatives are intertwined with strategic objectives.
Iranian Shi'i eschatology significantly impacts the country's foreign policy, shaping its interactions with regional and global powers. The belief in the return of the Mahdi, the emphasis on justice, and the valorization of martyrdom influence Iran's strategic decisions and support for various groups and causes. Understanding these eschatological beliefs provides crucial insights into the motivations behind Iran's foreign policy and the unique challenges it presents to the international community.
By recognizing the deep-rooted religious and ideological factors at play, policymakers and analysts can better navigate the complexities of engaging with Iran on the global stage. The interplay between eschatology and pragmatism in Iranian policy highlights the importance of considering religious and strategic dimensions in diplomatic efforts. As Iran navigates its role in a rapidly changing world, its eschatological beliefs will undoubtedly remain a key factor in shaping its policies and actions.
The ideas in this blog are mine, but AI was used to help create the content.