Tawhid vs. Trinity: Unpacking Islamic and Christian Monotheism

By Dr. Tim Orr

Monotheism, the belief in one God, is a cornerstone of Islam and Christianity, yet it is the foundation for two profoundly different theological landscapes. The journey of how each religion defines and understands God is a fascinating exploration of historical evolution, doctrinal development, and cultural adaptation. This blog, enriched by the groundbreaking insights of Mark Durie and Richard Bauckham and informed by the orality-focused research of Andy Bannister, invites you to delve into the intricate nuances of Islamic and Christian monotheism. Discover how these two faiths, both proclaiming the oneness of God, diverged in their paths to articulate their understanding of the divine, shaping the spiritual and moral frameworks of billions around the globe.

Summary

Get ready to explore the captivating worlds of Islamic and Christian monotheism. In this blog, I dive into how each religion uniquely defines and articulates the concept of one God. First, I summarize Andy Bannister’s work, which examines the role of orality in formulating the Quran. Bannister argues that Muhammad developed his ideas on the fly, manifesting the characteristics of orality. His research delves into the significance of oral traditions in 7th-century Arabia, demonstrating how Muhammad's recitations, deeply influenced by the oral culture of his time, shaped the Quran’s composition and transmission. This oral tradition played a crucial role in reinforcing the core tenets of Islamic theology.

After that, I examine Islamic monotheism, focusing on the core concept of tawhid and the strict prohibition of shirk. I'll uncover how these principles shape Muslim views of Allah’s absolute oneness and uniqueness. You'll also discover the powerful metaphors used in the Quran, the master-slave dynamic, and why there is no direct command to love God. Andy Bannister's research on the Quran's oral tradition will show how the spoken word reinforced these core tenets.

Then, I trace the evolution of Christian monotheism from its Jewish roots to the development of the Trinitarian doctrine. Through the teachings of Jesus and the early church, Christianity incorporated Jesus into the divine identity, maintaining monotheism while acknowledging the distinct persons of the Trinity. Richard Bauckham’s arguments in "God Crucified" will help you understand how early Christian belief in the divinity of Jesus redefined Jewish monotheism.

This analysis reveals how these faiths, proclaiming God's oneness, diverged in their theological journeys. They offer rich and complex understandings of the divine shaped by their unique historical and cultural contexts. Join me in uncovering Islamic and Christian monotheism's profound and exciting differences!

Andy Bannister's Insights: The Role of Orality in the Formation of Islamic Thought

In his research on the Quran and Islamic tradition, Andy Banister delves into the significance of orality in forming Muhammad's ideas about Islam. He argues that the oral culture of 7th-century Arabia played a crucial role in shaping the Quran's composition and transmission, influencing the development of Islamic theology. Here’s an explanation of Bannister's ideas:

The Oral Culture of Pre-Islamic Arabia

Pre-Islamic Arabia was predominantly an oral society where the spoken word held immense power and significance. Knowledge, poetry, and storytelling were transmitted orally in such cultures, and memory was vital in preserving and conveying information. This context is essential for understanding how the Quran was formed and how Islamic ideas were propagated.

Muhammad and the Use of Orality

Bannister emphasizes that Muhammad, the founder of Islam, operated within this oral cultural framework. He suggests that Muhammad's recitations, which later became the Quran, were deeply influenced by his time's oral traditions and storytelling practices. The rhythmic and repetitive nature of the Quranic verses reflects oral techniques designed to aid memorization and ensure accurate transmission.

Incorporation of Cultural Ideas

According to Bannister, Muhammad did not operate in a vacuum; he was influenced by his time's cultural and religious milieu. Pre-Islamic Arabia was a melting pot of religious ideas, including Judaism, Christianity, and local pagan beliefs. Bannister argues that Muhammad borrowed and adapted elements from these traditions, reshaping them into the monotheistic framework of Islam.

Jewish and Christian Influences: Bannister notes that many Quranic narratives and theological concepts have parallels in Jewish and Christian scriptures. For instance, the stories of prophets like Abraham, Moses, and Jesus are recounted in the Quran with variations that reflect the oral retelling and reinterpretation of these tales within the Arabian context.

Local Pagan Beliefs: The Quran also addresses and repurposes elements of the pre-Islamic Arabian belief system. The emphasis on monotheism (tawhid) and the rejection of associating partners with Allah (shirk) can directly respond to the polytheistic practices prevalent in Mecca and its surroundings.

Qur'anic Monotheism: A Critical Analysis

In pre-Islamic Arabia, the Arabs worshipped multiple deities linked to different aspects of life and nature. While they believed in a supreme god, often called Allah, they also revered many other gods and goddesses who acted as intermediaries between Allah and humans. Idolatry was widespread, with various tribes' idols representing deities associated with fertility, protection, and fortune. The Kaaba in Mecca housed numerous idols, reflecting this polytheistic tradition.

A central and controversial aspect of Islamic theology is shirk, or associating partners with Allah, which the Quran deems an unforgivable sin. This idea, borrowed from Arab culture, partly informs Islamic monotheism. With the advent of Islam, shirk became clearly defined as the gravest sin, marking a sharp departure from pre-Islamic polytheism. The destruction of idols and the purification of the Kaaba symbolized the rejection of shirk and the establishment of pure monotheism. Shirk includes attributing offspring to Allah and directly opposes the concept of Allah’s unity. Those who commit shirk are called mushrik, or "associators."

The Quran uses the metaphor of a master and slave to describe Allah’s relationship with humans, emphasizing absolute submission. This metaphor illustrates the chaos caused by shirk, likening it to a slave trying to serve two masters, leading to inevitable confusion and conflict. Shirk informs the master-slave relationship in Islam by highlighting the exclusive authority of Allah and the necessity of complete submission and obedience to Him. The metaphor of a slave serving two masters vividly illustrates the spiritual disorder caused by shirk, reinforcing the fundamental Islamic doctrine of tawhid. This relationship underscores the absolute unity of Allah and the undivided loyalty and worship that He commands from His creation.

From a Christian perspective, the shift from the father-son/daughter relationship to the master-slave dynamic in Islam represents a significant theological divergence. Christians are invited to reflect on the profound implications of being called children of God—a status that brings them into a loving, intimate, and covenantal relationship with their Creator. This relationship is not founded on fear or mere obedience, but on the love and grace offered through Jesus Christ.

For Muslims, this metaphor serves as a constant reminder of their position relative to Allah. It calls for humility, recognizing that they depend entirely on Allah’s will and guidance. The rejection of shirk and the embrace of tawhid align believers with the rightful order of creation, where Allah is the sole master and humans are His obedient servants.

Durie's Critique of Qur'anic Monotheism

In his provocative book The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion, Mark Durie offers a compelling critique of monotheism as presented in the Quran. Durie highlights the Quran’s strategic use of patron-protege relationships (derived from the root w-l-y) to emphasize Allah's sole sovereignty further.

The Quran’s arguments against attributing partners to Allah hinge on the inherent inequality between Allah and His creation. Various analogies are deployed to underscore the absurdity of equating Allah with any other being or entity. Durie’s analysis reveals how the doctrine of tawhid is polemically wielded in the Quran. Initially targeting pagan worshippers, the doctrine later addresses Christian teachings about Jesus as the Son of God. The Quran's vehement rejection of Allah having offspring adapts earlier arguments against pagan beliefs to counter Christian doctrines.

Disbelief (kufr) and association (shirk) are complementary concepts in the Quran, defining what it means to reject Allah's oneness. Kufr involves denying Allah’s signs and messengers, while shirk specifically refers to associating partners with Allah. Durie’s exploration illuminates how these intertwined concepts form the bedrock of Islamic monotheism, presenting a sharp polemical stance against pre-Islamic paganism and Christianity.

As Muhammad encountered Christian ideas in the later surahs, he adapted earlier arguments against paganism to counter Christian doctrines. The rejection of polytheism and idol worship was extended to include the Christian concept of the Trinity and the divinity of Jesus. By doing so, the Quran positions itself against any form of association (shirk) with Allah, whether through multiple gods or divine offspring.

The Development of Christian Monotheism

Jewish Roots and Trinitarian Evolution

Christian monotheism developed from its Jewish roots and evolved into a Trinitarian understanding through the teachings of Jesus and the early church. This development involved significant theological reflection and debate, resulting in the doctrine of the Trinity: one God in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit).

Christianity emerged from Judaism, which was firmly monotheistic. The Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4) is a foundational declaration of God’s oneness, setting the stage for Christian monotheism. By the time of Jesus, Jewish monotheism was well-established and deeply influential. This monotheistic tradition profoundly shaped the early Christian understanding of God.

Jesus and Early Christian Beliefs

Jesus affirmed Jewish monotheism but also revealed a unique relationship with God, referring to Him as Father and claiming divine status for Himself (e.g., John 10:30, "I and the Father are one"). The apostolic preaching maintained monotheism while acknowledging Jesus' divine role. Early Christian creeds, such as in 1 Corinthians 8:6, affirmed this: "yet for us there is but one God, the Father, from whom all things came and for whom we live; and there is but one Lord, Jesus Christ, through whom all things came and through whom we live."

Councils and Theological Debates

Early Christians grappled with understanding the relationship between God the Father, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit. This period saw diverse interpretations and debates. The Council of Nicaea (325 AD) responded to Arianism, which denied the full divinity of Jesus, by affirming that the Son is "of the same substance" (homoousios) as the Father. The Council of Constantinople (381 AD) further developed the doctrine by affirming the divinity of the Holy Spirit, leading to the full formulation of the Trinitarian doctrine: one God in three persons.

Richard Bauckham's "God Crucified"

In God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament, Richard Bauckham presents a compelling argument that early Christian belief in the divinity of Jesus did not represent a departure from Jewish monotheism but rather a redefinition of it. Bauckham’s key points include:

• Unique Divine Identity: Jewish monotheism focused on the unique identity of Yahweh as Creator and Sovereign. Early Christians included Jesus within this unique divine identity rather than adding another god. This inclusion did not undermine monotheism but expanded the understanding of God's identity to incorporate Jesus.
• High Christology: The belief in Jesus as fully divine was present from the earliest Christian writings. Texts like Philippians 2:6-11 and John 1:1-18 demonstrate this early high Christology. Jesus was seen as embodying the identity of the God of Israel, which is evident in worship practices and theological statements that equate Jesus with God.
• The Scandal of the Cross: One of Bauckham's central arguments is that the idea of a crucified God was scandalous and counterintuitive within Jewish and Greco-Roman contexts. Yet, the early Christians boldly proclaimed that in Jesus' crucifixion, the God of Israel had acted to redeem humanity. The crucifixion revealed the true nature of God’s identity and character—His self-giving love and willingness to suffer for humanity. This was a radical redefinition of divine power and glory.
• Biblical Exegesis: Bauckham shows how the New Testament writers reinterpreted Old Testament texts to include Jesus in the divine identity. Passages that speak of Yahweh's unique sovereignty and creative power are applied to Jesus (e.g., 1 Corinthians 8:6). Jesus is depicted as performing roles and functions traditionally ascribed to God alone, such as creating, sustaining the universe, and receiving worship.
• Monotheism Redefined: Bauckham argues that early Christian monotheism was not a rejection of Jewish monotheism but a redefinition to include Jesus within the divine identity. This redefinition maintained the belief in one God while understanding that God's self-revelation had come uniquely in the person of Jesus Christ. There is continuity with Jewish monotheism and innovation in how early Christians understood and articulated the relationship between Jesus and God.

Conclusion

The Islamic and Christian understandings of monotheism are both rooted in the belief in one God, but they diverge significantly in their theological development and implications. Islam emphasizes Allah's absolute oneness and uniqueness, rejecting any form of association (shirk). In contrast, Christianity developed a Trinitarian understanding, incorporating Jesus into the divine identity while maintaining monotheism. These differences reflect the distinct theological paths and historical developments of each religion.

Islamic monotheism is characterized by its focus on tawhid and the strict prohibition of shirk, framing its understanding of God in terms of what He is not. The Quran’s polemics against polytheism and later against Christian doctrines highlight this aspect. On the other hand, Christian monotheism, influenced by Jewish monotheism, expanded to include Jesus within the unique divine identity, ultimately leading to the doctrine of the Trinity. Both traditions offer rich and complex understandings of the divine, shaped by their unique historical and cultural contexts.

Bannister, Andy. (2017). An Oral-Formulaic Study of the Qur'an. Lexington Books

Bachman, Richard. (1999) God Crucified: Monotheism and Christology in the New Testament. Eerdmans Pub Co

Durie, Mark. (2018) The Qur’an and Its Biblical Reflexes: Investigations into the Genesis of a Religion. Lexington Books