Islamic Imperialism: From Ancient Conquests to Today’s Global Ambitions

By Dr. Tim Orr

When it comes to debates about the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, you’ve probably heard the same narrative repeated time and again: Israel is the primary colonial power in the Middle East—a foreign occupier, an extension of Western imperialism, and a settler state imposed on indigenous lands. This perspective is popular among Arabs, both Christian and Muslim, Muslims globally, and many progressive Westerners often labeled as “woke.” But here’s the thing: this portrayal doesn’t really tell the story. It obscures who the real imperial force in the region has been for over 1,400 years: Islam.

Islamic expansion, since its inception, has involved conquest, subjugation, and a clear drive for global dominance, all justified by theological mandates. Unlike Israel, which was founded in 1948 as a Jewish homeland in response to centuries of persecution and based on ancient ties to the land, Islamic empires were built through aggressive conquests aimed at establishing Islamic rule. This is not just a historical relic—it’s an ongoing vision that still drives certain Islamist movements today.

Yet, this side of history is often brushed aside or downplayed by Muslims worldwide, many progressives, and, unfortunately, Arab Christians who grew up with this ideology. Instead, the narrative usually frames Muslims as perpetual victims of Western colonialism or Israeli aggression, sidestepping Islam’s imperial ambitions. This selective reading of history fits neatly into an anti-Western narrative but is far from the full picture.

In this analysis, I want to unpack the historical and theological roots of Islamic imperialism and set them against the founding of Israel. My aim is not to simplify a complex issue but to confront the overlooked facts that reveal who the true imperial force has been in the region. By doing so, I hope to bring much-needed clarity to a debate dominated by a distorted, one-sided narrative.

Islam’s Foundational Vision: Religion Meets State-Building

Islam didn’t begin as just a set of spiritual beliefs; it started as a comprehensive socio-political movement aimed at creating a theocratic state under the guidance of Islamic law. Muhammad’s dual role as a prophet and political leader was not incidental—it was a deliberate attempt to build a state that would govern all aspects of life under Islamic rule. This early political vision is a key component of Islam’s imperial character.

From the very start, Muhammad’s military campaigns were about defending the nascent Muslim community and expanding Islamic influence. The Constitution of Medina, often portrayed as a model of early Islamic governance, was as much about political dominance as it was about fostering coexistence. It incorporated different tribes under Islamic rule but placed non-Muslims in a subordinate position. This laid the groundwork for the broader Islamic agenda of dominance rather than merely coexistence.

The concept of jihad was central to this expansionist vision. Efraim Karsh, in his book Islamic Imperial: A History, points out that while contemporary interpretations often emphasize jihad as a spiritual struggle, in the early Islamic period, it primarily meant warfare to spread Islamic governance. The Battle of Badr and the Conquest of Mecca were not defensive maneuvers but proactive campaigns to establish a political state governed by Islam.

Early Islamic Expansion: Aggressive Conquests and Pragmatic Integration

The rapid expansion following Muhammad’s death in 632 CE was about spreading the faith and building an empire. The Rashidun Caliphs launched aggressive campaigns that extended Islamic rule across the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Europe. These conquests were not defensive, as some suggest, but were driven by a clear intent to establish Islamic dominance.

The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) institutionalized this imperial drive, creating one of the largest empires of its time. The Umayyads were not just spreading Islam; they were building a socio-political empire. Karsh points out that the Umayyads imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims not just as a financial measure but as a symbol of subjugation, reinforcing the idea of Muslim superiority. While the Umayyads did allow a certain degree of cultural and religious autonomy to maintain stability, this was more about pragmatic governance than genuine coexistence.

The Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE) continued pursuing imperial ambitions while fostering a cultural renaissance. Karsh emphasizes that while the Abbasids are often celebrated for their contributions to science, medicine, and philosophy, these achievements were also tools for solidifying Islamic rule over diverse populations. The House of Wisdom in Baghdad, for example, was a center of learning and a symbol of Islamic intellectual superiority, further reinforcing imperial ambitions.

The Ottoman Empire: The Height of Islamic Imperial Ambition

The Ottoman Empire (1299–1922) represents one of the most sophisticated expressions of Islamic imperialism. Beginning as a small Anatolian state, the Ottomans expanded into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa, establishing a multi-ethnic empire governed by Islamic principles. Karsh describes the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 as a pivotal moment in Islamic history, symbolizing Islam’s ambition to dominate Christian lands.

The Ottomans’ use of the millet system allowed for some degree of self-governance among non-Muslim communities, but it primarily served to maintain control while reinforcing Islamic supremacy. Non-Muslims were still subject to discriminatory laws and treated as second-class citizens, consistent with the broader Islamic colonial agenda.

Karsh also highlights the janissaries, elite soldiers often recruited from Christian populations through the devshirme system. These soldiers, forcibly converted to Islam, embodied the Ottoman strategy of assimilation and domination. The Ottoman expansion into Europe, particularly the sieges of Vienna, was not just about defense but about expanding Islamic rule further into the Christian world, reflecting a long-standing vision of global Islamic dominance.

Modern Islamist Movements: Reviving the Caliphate’s Ambitions

While the collapse of the Ottoman Empire in 1922 marked the end of the historical Caliphate, the vision of a global Islamic state has persisted through modern Islamist movements. Groups like the Muslim Brotherhood, Al-Qaeda, and ISIS represent a continuation of Islam’s imperial agenda, aiming not just for political independence but for the re-establishment of Islamic rule over territories.

The Muslim Brotherhood, founded in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna, seeks to achieve Islamic governance through political activism and social reform. While the Brotherhood often employs non-violent means, its ultimate goal remains the same: the restoration of a global Islamic state guided by sharia.

Al-Qaeda and ISIS adopt a more militant approach, openly pursuing a revival of the Caliphate through jihad. When ISIS declared a Caliphate in 2014, it did so not as a symbolic gesture but as a serious attempt to re-establish Islamic rule according to early Islamic models. For ISIS leaders, the drive for a global Islamic state is a core religious obligation rooted in the same imperial vision that guided early Islamic conquests.

Islam vs. Israel: Debunking the Colonial Narrative

In the modern debate over the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, Israel is frequently accused of being a colonial entity. However, historical context tells a different story: it is Islam, not Israel, that has been the primary colonial force in the region. Islamic empires, from the Rashidun Caliphate to the Ottoman Empire, expanded through conquest, subjugation, and imposition of Islamic law over indigenous populations.

• The Umayyad conquests of Spain, North Africa, and parts of Europe were not about peaceful coexistence but establishing an Islamic political order.
• The Ottoman Empire ruled over territories across Europe, Asia, and Africa, treating non-Muslims as subjects of a broader Islamic system enforced through the dhimmi system.

Israel’s founding in 1948 was not the result of imperial conquest but of a legal return to an ancestral homeland. It arose through international legal frameworks, such as the Balfour Declaration (1917) and the UN Partition Plan (1947), recognizing Jewish ties to the land. Unlike Islam’s historical expansionist ambitions, Israel’s creation was driven by the need for self-determination and security, not by a religious mandate to dominate.

The Concept of Dar al-Islam and Dar al-Harb: A Colonialist Framework

The division of the world into Dar al-Islam (House of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (House of War) illustrates Islam’s enduring colonial mindset. This theological division mandates the expansion of Islamic rule over non-Muslim territories, often through jihad. This division is not just historical but is reflected in the goals of modern Islamist movements, which seek to bring all territories under Islamic governance.

In contrast, Israel has no equivalent religious mandate to expand its borders or impose Jewish law on non-Jewish lands globally. Its wars have been defensive, focused on survival rather than expansion. The fundamental difference lies in motivations: Israel’s establishment was based on historical ties and a need for self-preservation, while Islamic expansion has historically aimed at global dominance.

Modern Islamism: The Continuation of Islamic Colonialism

Modern Islamist movements like Hamas, Hezbollah, and ISIS are often portrayed as reactions to Western imperialism or the existence of Israel. However, these movements are not merely reactive but driven by a continuation of Islam’s imperial agenda.

• ISIS’s declaration of a Caliphate was an attempt to revive Islamic rule according to early models, seeking not just regional control but global expansion.
• Hamas, governing Gaza, aims to replace Israel with an Islamic state, not to achieve peaceful coexistence. Its goal aligns with the broader historical narrative of Islamic imperialism.

Conclusion: Recognizing the True Colonial Force

Islamic imperialism is not just a historical phenomenon; it remains a driving force in modern geopolitics, particularly in the Middle East. While Israel is often labeled as a colonial power, historical evidence points to Islam as the more enduring imperial force. Islamic expansion has been marked by conquest, subjugation, and a theological mandate for global dominance.

Recognizing this reality is crucial for understanding the complexities of modern conflicts and developing effective responses. By addressing the ideological roots of Islamic imperialism, policymakers and reform-minded Muslims can work towards a more peaceful and cooperative global future. Islam, not Israel, embodies the historical and modern essence of colonialism, seeking not coexistence but dominance. Confronting this reality is essential for fostering true peace and understanding in an interconnected world.

Reference

Karsh, E. (2006). Islamic imperialism: A history. Yale University Press.

Tim Orr is a scholar, Evangelical minister, conference speaker, and interfaith consultant with over 30 years of experience in cross-cultural ministry. He holds six degrees, including a master’s in Islamic studies from the Islamic College in London. Tim taught Religious Studies for 15 years at Indiana University Columbus and is now a Congregations and Polarization Project research associate at the Center for the Study of Religion and American Culture at Indiana University Indianapolis. He has spoken at universities, including Oxford University, the University of Tehran, and mosques throughout the U.K. His research focuses on American Evangelicalism, Islamic antisemitism, and Islamic feminism, and he has published widely, including articles in Islamic peer-reviewed journals and three books.