This blog explores how al-Husseini’s radical views influenced Khomeini, shaping not just his rhetoric but also the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, with consequences that have reverberated far beyond its borders.
By Dr. Tim Orr
Antisemitism has, unfortunately, cast a long shadow over parts of Islamic thought. In the 20th century, two prominent figures contributed significantly to this dark legacy: Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, and Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the architect of Iran's Islamic Revolution. While these two men operated in different regions and under distinct circumstances, their shared hatred toward Jews and Zionism forged a troubling ideological connection. This blog explores how al-Husseini’s radical views influenced Khomeini, shaping not just his rhetoric but also the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran, with consequences that have reverberated far beyond its borders.
To understand Khomeini's worldview, we must first examine the influence of Haj Amin al-Husseini, one of the most controversial figures in the Arab world during the 20th century. Born in 1897, al-Husseini became the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem in 1921, at a time when tensions between Jews and Arabs in British Mandate Palestine were rapidly escalating. He quickly emerged as a leading figure in Arab nationalism, but his legacy is marred by his virulent antisemitism and his collaboration with Nazi Germany during World War II.
Al-Husseini’s alliance with the Nazis was not just a political maneuver; a deep-seated hatred of Jews drove it. He actively participated in Nazi propaganda efforts, broadcasting antisemitic messages across the Arab world and even recruiting Muslims for the Waffen-SS. His vision of a Jew-free Middle East was deeply entwined with his interpretation of Islam, which he used to justify his actions (Herf, 2009). Al-Husseini’s rhetoric and actions left a lasting mark on the Arab nationalist movement, embedding antisemitic views that figures like Khomeini would later adopt.
Political, social, and religious factors shaped Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini’s rise to power in Iran. Born in 1902, Khomeini witnessed the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the colonization of much of the Muslim world, and the growing influence of Western powers in the Middle East. These events deeply influenced his thinking, and by the mid-20th century, he had become a staunch critic of the Pahlavi monarchy in Iran, condemning its ties to the United States and Israel.
Khomeini’s antisemitism cannot be separated from his broader opposition to Western imperialism. In his eyes, Zionism was not just a political movement but a manifestation of a global Jewish conspiracy aimed at undermining Islam and dominating the Muslim world. This worldview was heavily influenced by the antisemitic ideas that had been circulating in the Middle East for decades, particularly those propagated by al-Husseini (Litvak, 2006).
Khomeini’s antisemitism was also deeply rooted in his interpretation of key Islamic concepts such as fitna (sedition or discord), fitra (innate human nature), dhimmitude (the status of non-Muslims under Islamic rule), and jihad (struggle in the way of God). These concepts gave Khomeini the theological justification he needed to frame his antisemitic views within the broader context of his revolutionary ideology.
In Islamic thought, fitna is often associated with chaos, sedition, and trials that lead believers astray. Khomeini, much like al-Husseini before him, used this concept to paint Jews as perpetual agents of discord within the Muslim community. He saw the existence of Israel and the presence of Jews in the Middle East as sources of fitna, disrupting the unity and purity of the Islamic ummah (community). This perspective allowed him to portray Jews as not just political adversaries but as inherent enemies of Islam, whose very existence posed a threat to the spiritual and political integrity of the Muslim world.
Khomeini’s use of fitna was not just rhetoric but a crucial part of how he shaped Iran’s foreign policy. By labeling Israel as a source of fitna, Khomeini could justify Iran’s support for militant groups that sought to destabilize Israel and challenge its right to exist. This framing also extended to Iran’s broader foreign policy, where any state or entity perceived as supporting Israel was seen as complicit in spreading fitna, thus becoming a legitimate target for Iranian opposition.
In his work Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Hukumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih), Khomeini discusses fitna extensively, describing it as a significant threat to the Islamic community. He identifies external influences, particularly those of Israel and its Western allies, as the primary sources of such sedition. For Khomeini, fitna was not just a disruption of peace but a direct challenge to the unity of Islam itself. His speeches, collected in Sahifeh-ye Imam (The Imam's Book), particularly in Volume 4, consistently portray Israel as the embodiment of fitna, a force working to undermine the Islamic world from within.
In Islamic theology, Fitra refers to the innate disposition toward righteousness and submission to God that is believed to be present in every human being. Khomeini’s interpretation of fitra was central to his understanding of the Jewish people and their role in history. He viewed Jews as having deviated from their fitra by rejecting Muhammad's prophethood and conspiring against Islam. For Khomeini, this deviation was not just a religious error but a fundamental corruption of their nature, which made them adversaries of Islam by their very essence.
This theological perspective gave Khomeini a religious foundation for his antisemitism. He argued that Jews, having corrupted their fitra, were incapable of sincere alliance or peaceful coexistence with Muslims. This belief justified his harsh policies against Jews, both within Iran and in his broader foreign policy, where he viewed Jewish influence as something that needed to be curtailed and opposed at all costs.
In Forty Hadith: An Exposition of Ethical and Mystical Traditions, Khomeini offers a detailed discussion of fitra, exploring how deviation from this natural state leads to spiritual and moral corruption. He contrasts the pure fitra of Muslims with what he perceives as the corrupted nature of Jews, who he argues have strayed from their innate disposition towards God. This view provided a theological underpinning for Khomeini’s policies, which sought to marginalize Jewish influence within the Islamic Republic and the broader Muslim world.
Khomeini’s writings in Islamic Revolution in Iran: Selected Speeches and Writings of Ayatollah Khomeini further elaborate on this theme. He frequently returns to the concept of fitra to explain the inherent hostility he perceives in Jews towards Islam, arguing that this corruption of fitra makes Jews inherently opposed to the Islamic order. This belief not only justified Khomeini’s antisemitic policies but also shaped Iran’s foreign policy, which was aimed at countering what he saw as the pervasive and evil influence of Jewish interests in the region.
The concept of dhimmitude refers to the status of non-Muslims living under Islamic rule, where they are allowed to practice their religion but must adhere to certain restrictions and pay a special tax in exchange for protection. Khomeini, drawing on traditional Islamic jurisprudence, viewed Jews as dhimmis who had overstepped their bounds by establishing a sovereign state in the heart of the Muslim world. This reversal of roles—where Jews, who had historically been a subjugated minority under Islamic rule, had established a powerful state—was deeply offensive to Khomeini’s understanding of the Islamic order.
Khomeini’s antisemitism was thus partly rooted in a desire to restore Jews to their “proper” place within the Islamic hierarchy. He viewed the existence of Israel as an insult to the Islamic concept of dhimmitude and as a direct challenge to Muslim dominance. This perspective influenced Iran’s policy of non-recognition of Israel and its support for movements that sought to reverse what Khomeini saw as an illegitimate and blasphemous usurpation of Muslim land.
In Kashf al-Asrar (Unveiling of Secrets), Khomeini articulates his views on dhimmitude, offering a critique of non-Muslims, particularly Jews, who he believed had transgressed the limits set by Islamic law. He argues that while dhimmis are entitled to protection under Islamic rule, they must also accept their subordinate status and adhere to the restrictions placed upon them. The establishment of Israel, in Khomeini’s view, represented a violation of this order, as it placed Jews in a position of power rather than submission. This perceived reversal was not just a political issue for Khomeini but a theological one, necessitating a response to restore the proper hierarchy as dictated by Islamic law.
Khomeini’s views on dhimmitude are further elaborated in Tahrir al-Wasilah, a comprehensive legal text where he provides detailed rulings on the treatment of non-Muslims under Islamic governance. In this work, Khomeini reiterates the principles of dhimmitude, emphasizing the obligations and restrictions that non-Muslims must adhere to under Islamic rule. His legal opinions reflect his broader worldview, where the dominance of Islam is central, and the presence of an independent Jewish state is seen as a direct challenge to this dominance. This interpretation of dhimmitude provided the legal and religious basis for Iran’s policies towards Jews, both within the country and in its foreign policy towards Israel.
Jihad, often translated as “struggle” or “striving,” encompasses both spiritual and physical efforts in the path of God. Khomeini’s interpretation of jihad was deeply tied to his views on Zionism. For him, jihad was not just a defensive measure but a duty to actively resist and combat the forces he believed were corrupting and undermining Islam—chief among them, Zionism. Khomeini saw the struggle against Israel and its supporters as a form of jihad, a holy war necessary to defend Islam and restore justice in the Muslim world.
Khomeini’s call for jihad against Israel became a cornerstone of Iranian foreign policy. The Islamic Republic’s support for groups like Hezbollah and Hamas was justified as part of this broader jihad against Zionism. Khomeini framed the conflict with Israel as a religious duty, which resonated deeply within the Islamic world and had lasting effects on the dynamics of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.
Khomeini’s views on jihad are extensively discussed in his Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Hukumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih). In this work, he outlines jihad as an essential duty of the Islamic state, particularly in defending Islam against external threats. Khomeini argues that jihad is not only a defensive measure but also a necessary action to protect and expand the boundaries of the Islamic world. He identifies Israel and its Western allies as primary targets of this jihad, arguing that their influence must be actively resisted and, if possible, eradicated.
This perspective is further elaborated in Khomeini’s speeches, compiled in Sahifeh-ye Imam (The Imam's Book), particularly in Volume 20. Here, Khomeini expands on the necessity of jihad against Zionism, framing it as a religious obligation for all Muslims. He frequently uses the language of jihad to mobilize support for Iran’s foreign policy, portraying the struggle against Israel as a sacred duty that transcends national boundaries. Khomeini’s emphasis on jihad against Zionism provided the ideological foundation for Iran’s extensive support for militant groups in the region, solidifying the Islamic Republic’s role as a central player in the ongoing conflict with Israel.
The antisemitic ideology inherited from al-Husseini, combined with Khomeini’s interpretation of Islamic concepts like fitna, fitra, dhimmitude, and jihad, had profound implications for Iranian foreign policy under Khomeini and his successors. This influence can be seen in several key areas:
The antisemitic ideology of Haj Amin al-Husseini had a lasting impact on Ayatollah Khomeini, shaping the latter's views on Jews and Zionism. Through the transmission of ideas, propaganda, and religious narratives, al-Husseini's antisemitism was woven into the fabric of Khomeini's revolutionary ideology. This ideological lineage has had far-reaching consequences, contributing to the persistence of antisemitism in the Middle East and the perpetuation of conflict between Iran and Israel. Understanding this connection is crucial for comprehending the historical and ideological roots of antisemitism in the region and its ongoing influence on contemporary politics.
Khomeini’s interpretation of Islamic concepts such as fitna, fitra, dhimmitude, and jihad provided a religious framework for his antisemitic views, which were not only rhetorical but deeply embedded in the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran. These views have had a profound impact on Iranian foreign policy, particularly in its relations with Israel and its support for anti-Israel militant groups. The legacy of Khomeini’s antisemitism continues to shape the Middle East today, contributing to ongoing conflicts and regional instability.
Herf, J. (2009). Nazi propaganda for the Arab world. Yale University Press.
Khomeini, R. (1981). Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist (Hukumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih).
Khomeini, R. (1981). Kashf al-Asrar (Unveiling of Secrets).
Khomeini, R. (1985). Forty Hadith: An Exposition of Ethical and Mystical Traditions.
Khomeini, R. (1987). Tahrir al-Wasilah.
Khomeini, R. (1989). Sahifeh-ye Imam (The Imam's Book), Vol. 20.
Khomeini, R. (1995). Islamic Revolution in Iran: Selected Speeches and Writings of Ayatollah Khomeini.
Küntzel, M. (2007). Jihad and Jew-hatred: Islamism, Nazism, and the roots of 9/11. Telos Press.
Litvak, M. (2006). The Islamization of antisemitism in Iran. Israel Affairs, 12(1), 67-84.
Takeyh, R. (2006). Hidden Iran: Paradox and power in the Islamic Republic. Henry Holt and Co