This article delves into the experiences of two distinct groups—American Evangelical women and British Shia Muslim women—exploring how they navigate their religious identities within the broader secular cultures they inhabit.
By Dr. Tim Orr
In today’s world, women play a pivotal role within religious communities, often balancing the expectations of their faith with the realities of living in increasingly secular societies. The intersection of gender and religion presents unique challenges, particularly for women in communities rooted in strong religious doctrines. This article delves into the experiences of two distinct groups—American Evangelical women and British Shia Muslim women—exploring how they navigate their religious identities within the broader secular cultures they inhabit.
The choice to compare these two groups is intentional. American Evangelical and British Shia Muslim women come from different religious traditions and cultural backgrounds. Yet, both grapple with the demands of maintaining their faith while adapting to secular norms. By examining their experiences, we understand how these women reconcile their roles, identities, and practices within their religious frameworks and the broader society.
This article argues that while these women face distinct challenges due to their differing religious and cultural contexts, they share a common struggle: the need to assert their religious identities in secular environments that often challenge their beliefs and practices. This shared experience underscores the broader theme of how religion and secularism intersect, particularly in the lives of women who are deeply committed to their faith.
Historical and Cultural Contexts
American Evangelicals: Women’s Roles and Secular Influences
The role of women in American Evangelical communities has evolved significantly over time. Historically, Evangelical women have been active in church life and social movements, with notable involvement in the abolitionist and temperance movements of the 19th century. The rise of Evangelical feminism in the 1970s further expanded women’s roles, advocating for greater equality within the church and family (Gallagher, 2003). These historical movements have laid the groundwork for ongoing debates within Evangelicalism about women's proper roles in church and society.
According to a 2021 Pew Research Center report, 25% of American adults identify as Evangelical Protestants, with women making up a significant portion of this demographic. Despite the influence of secular feminism, most Evangelical women support complementarian views, with 56% affirming that men should hold leadership roles within the church, compared to 39% who support egalitarianism (Pew Research Center, 2021). These statistics highlight the ongoing tension between traditional gender roles and modern societal norms within the Evangelical community.
Evangelical teachings on gender roles remain deeply influenced by broader American cultural norms, including the unfortunate pervasive impact of secular feminism. While some Evangelical women have embraced egalitarian views, advocating for equal leadership roles in the church, others adhere to complementarian beliefs, emphasizing distinct roles for men and women based on Biblical teachings (Piper & Grudem, 1991). The influence of secularism has sparked debates within Evangelical circles, particularly regarding issues like gender roles, sexuality, and the role of women in public life. These debates often reflect broader societal tensions and raise important questions about how religious communities can remain true to their teachings while engaging with a changing cultural landscape.
Evangelical critiques of feminism often center on the perceived conflict between feminist ideals and Biblical teachings. Many Evangelicals argue that feminism’s emphasis on gender equality undermines the Biblical model of male headship and female submission in marriage and the church. Some also view feminism as contributing to the erosion of traditional family structures, which they see as foundational to both society and their faith (Gallagher, 2003). This critique has strongly emphasized upholding traditional gender roles, even as some women within the movement push for more inclusive interpretations. Within this discourse, feminism is sometimes described as a "secular religion"—a belief system that seeks to replace traditional religious values with secular ideologies centered on individualism and equity (Orr, 2023).
Despite this, there is a significant diversity of thought within Evangelicalism. For example, some women navigate these tensions by integrating feminist ideals with their faith, arguing that true Biblical equality supports gender justice. Others might selectively embrace aspects of feminism that align with their religious values while rejecting those they see as incompatible with Biblical teachings. This diversity of perspectives highlights the complexity of the relationship between Evangelical women and feminism.
British Shia Muslims: The Role of Women in a Double Minority
Migration and cultural integration patterns shape the history of Shia Muslim communities in the UK. Women in these communities often navigate the complexities of maintaining their religious identity while integrating into a predominantly secular British society. As a double minority—both as women and as members of a religious minority—British Shia Muslim women face unique challenges that shape their experiences.
Migration from South Asia, East Africa, and the Middle East in the mid-20th century brought Shia Muslims to the UK, where they established religious and cultural communities. Women have traditionally played a central role in these communities, particularly in religious education and the organization of communal rituals (Ansari, 2002). However, the secular environment of the UK, combined with the challenges of cultural integration, has influenced how these women engage with their faith. The pressure to conform to British societal norms while maintaining religious practices creates a complex landscape for British Shia Muslim women. These dynamics are further complicated by the need to balance their cultural heritage with the expectations of modern British society.
In the 2011 UK Census, Muslims made up 4.8% of the population, with Shia Muslims being a minority within this group. British Shia Muslim women, therefore, face the dual challenge of navigating both gender and religious minority status. A 2017 study by the Muslim Council of Britain found that 66% of British Muslims felt their identity was equally British and Muslim, yet many Shia Muslim women still face significant challenges in reconciling these identities, particularly in light of rising secularism and Islamophobia.
Critiques of feminism within British Shia Muslim communities often focus on the perceived incompatibility of feminist principles with Islamic teachings. Some within the community argue that Western feminism’s emphasis on individualism and gender equality conflicts with the collective values and gender roles prescribed by Islam. For example, while feminism advocates for equal roles in all aspects of life, Shia teachings often emphasize complementary roles within the family, where men are seen as protectors and providers and women as nurturers and caretakers (Momen, 1985). This perspective can lead to rejecting feminist ideals to uphold traditional religious practices seen as integral to preserving the community’s identity. This tension between religious tradition and modern feminist ideals continues to shape the experiences of Shia Muslim women in the UK.
Iranian influence also plays a significant role in shaping the views of British Shia Muslim women. The Iranian Revolution of 1979, for example, brought about a resurgence of conservative religious values, which have been exported to Shia communities worldwide, including in the UK. Iranian religious leaders often promote a vision of gender roles that is deeply rooted in Islamic tradition, emphasizing the importance of modesty, family, and community over individual rights and freedoms. This influence is evident in how British Shia Muslim women navigate their roles within their religious communities and the broader secular society.
Theological Foundations and Gender Roles
American Evangelicals: Navigating Gender Expectations
Within American Evangelicalism, theological teachings on gender roles are central to how women understand their place within the church and society. Complementarianism, which advocates for distinct but complementary roles for men and women, is a dominant perspective in many Evangelical circles. This view often places women in roles related to homemaking and child-rearing, while men are seen as leaders both in the church and the home (Piper & Grudem, 1991). These teachings have long been a cornerstone of Evangelical identity, influencing how women perceive their roles within the broader context of their faith.
To deepen the understanding of these gender roles, exploring key scriptural texts and religious interpretations underpinning complementarianism is essential. For instance, passages such as Ephesians 5:22-33 and 1 Timothy 2:12-14 are often cited to support the idea that men and women have distinct roles in the family and church. These interpretations are rooted in a literal understanding of the Bible, which many Evangelicals believe prescribes specific roles for men and women based on divine order (Piper & Grudem, 1991). This theological foundation is critical to understanding why complementarianism remains influential within Evangelical communities, even as societal norms evolve.
On the other hand, egalitarianism, which advocates equal roles for men and women in the church and family, has gained traction among some Evangelical groups. This perspective particularly appeals to younger Evangelical women influenced by secular ideas of gender equality. These differing theological views shape how Evangelical women navigate their roles, whether adhering to traditional expectations or pushing for more egalitarian practices (Gallagher, 2003). The ongoing dialogue within Evangelicalism reflects broader societal debates about the place of women in both religious and secular contexts.
Despite the growing influence of egalitarianism, many Evangelical women remain critical of feminism, viewing it as a threat to the Biblical order of gender roles. This critique is often framed within the context of protecting the family unit and maintaining the authority of Scripture over secular ideologies. Evangelical women who support complementarianism may see their roles as divinely ordained and find fulfillment in adhering to these traditional structures, even as they encounter societal pressures to adopt more egalitarian practices (Piper & Grudem, 1991). The tension between these competing perspectives highlights Evangelical communities' broader cultural challenges in a rapidly changing world.
For some Evangelicals, feminism is seen not just as a social movement but as a "secular religion" that promotes values contrary to Biblical teachings. This perspective views feminism as an ideology that replaces the authority of Scripture with human autonomy, emphasizing individual rights over communal responsibilities and traditional roles. This framing further deepens the divide between those who support traditional gender roles and those who advocate for gender equality within the Evangelical community.
British Shia Muslims: Balancing Tradition and Modernity
Shia Islamic teachings provide a framework for understanding women’s roles, emphasizing the importance of family obligations, religious practices, and community participation. Within Shia tradition, women are often seen as the moral and spiritual backbone of the family, responsible for nurturing their children's faith and supporting the household's religious practices (Momen, 1985). This understanding of gender roles is deeply embedded in the religious and cultural practices of Shia communities, both in the UK and globally.
To fully appreciate these gender roles, it is essential to explore key religious texts and interpretations that guide Shia Muslim practices. For example, teachings derived from the Quran and Hadith emphasize the complementary roles of men and women in the family and society. The concept of Wilayah (guardianship) is particularly significant, where men are often viewed as women's protectors and maintainers, a role seen as divinely ordained and central to the family structure (Momen, 1985). This theological foundation helps explain why traditional gender roles are strongly upheld within Shia Muslim communities despite the influence of modern secular ideas.
In the UK, British Shia Muslim women interpret and practice these teachings in ways that reflect both their religious beliefs and the secular context they live in. For example, while many women uphold traditional roles within the family, they also pursue education and careers, navigating the expectations of their religious community and the broader society. The influence of secularism challenges these women to find a balance between maintaining their religious identity and adapting to the cultural norms of modern Britain (Rizvi, 2013). This balancing act is a testament to the resilience and adaptability of Shia Muslim women as they navigate the complexities of life in a secular society.
A 2019 report by the Office for National Statistics found that Muslim women in the UK are less likely to be employed than their non-Muslim counterparts, with employment rates of 35% compared to 69% for non-Muslim women. This disparity reflects the broader challenges faced by Muslim women, including Shia Muslims, in navigating secular expectations around gender and work while adhering to religious teachings. British Shia Muslim women often critique Western feminism from the perspective that it does not align with Islamic principles regarding gender roles. Many argue that the Western feminist focus on individual autonomy and equality does not account for the collective and family-oriented nature of Islamic teachings, where gender roles are seen as complementary rather than identical. This critique leads to a preference for a model of gender relations that upholds religious values, emphasizing women's roles within the family and community as vital to preserving Islamic identity (Momen, 1985). This perspective not only reflects religious convictions but also serves as a response to the pressures of secularism that challenge traditional gender norms.
Iranian influence further shapes these critiques, as religious leaders from Iran often promote a vision of gender roles that emphasizes modesty, family loyalty, and communal responsibility. For many British Shia Muslim women, this influence reinforces the importance of adhering to traditional roles, even as they engage with a society that promotes more liberal views on gender and equality.
Navigating Secularism
American Evangelicals: Responding to Secular Pressures
For American Evangelical women, the secular culture presents both challenges and opportunities. Issues like gender equality, feminism, and sexuality are often at the forefront of the tension between religious beliefs and secular norms. Evangelical women may struggle to maintain traditional gender roles in environments that increasingly promote gender equality and challenge conservative views on sexuality (Smith, 2014). This struggle indicates broader societal shifts that challenge traditional religious values and practices.
However, the article could benefit from a more critical engagement with secularism. Secularism is not merely an external force challenging religious beliefs but a complex framework that influences public policy, societal values, and individual identities. For Evangelical women, secular values can sometimes feel at odds with their religious teachings, particularly in areas such as reproductive rights, same-sex marriage, and gender roles. These conflicts often arise in public policy debates, where religious convictions are pitted against secular laws and societal norms. By critically engaging with these tensions, the article could explore whether there is room for dialogue between secular and religious worldviews that might lead to more inclusive and respectful public spaces (Smith, 2014). Such an exploration would provide a more nuanced understanding of how Evangelical women navigate the secular landscape.
The tension between adhering to traditional gender roles and adapting to secular expectations is particularly evident in work, education, and public life. Some Evangelical women maintain their religious beliefs in these areas, often participating in women’s groups and online communities that support their faith-based values. Others, however, may feel the need to compromise or adapt their practices to fit into the broader secular culture (Gallagher, 2003). This ongoing negotiation between faith and societal expectations reflects the complex dynamics of religious identity in a secular world.
Despite the pressures of secularism, many Evangelical women remain committed to their religious teachings on gender roles, viewing these as essential to their faith and identity. This commitment often involves a rejection of secular feminist ideals, which are seen as incompatible with Biblical teachings on gender and family (Piper & Grudem, 1991). By participating in conservative women’s networks and religious organizations, Evangelical women find support for maintaining their traditional roles in a secular world. These networks provide a sense of community and affirmation, helping women navigate the challenges of secularism while staying true to their faith.
The role of social media in this context cannot be overstated. Online platforms have become critical spaces where Evangelical women can discuss faith, feminism, and secularism. These platforms allow for the sharing of ideas, the formation of support networks, and the promotion of religious values in the face of secular pressures. However, they also serve as battlegrounds where the tension between secular feminism and religious conservatism is often heightened. For instance, Facebook groups and Instagram accounts run by Evangelical influencers often discuss how to uphold Biblical gender roles in a culture that increasingly rejects them.
British Shia Muslims: Navigating Secularism in Public and Private Life
British Shia Muslim women face similar challenges in navigating secularism, particularly in areas like education, employment, and public religious expression. The secular laws and cultural expectations in the UK often conflict with religious practices, such as the wearing of the hijab or participation in religious rituals. For many women, these practices are integral to their religious identity, yet they can also be a source of tension in secular environments (Ansari, 2002). The balancing act between religious observance and societal integration is a daily reality for many Shia Muslim women in the UK.
The article could include first-person perspectives or case studies from British Shia Muslim women to enrich the discussion. Hearing these women's experiences directly would add a personal dimension to the analysis, making the article more relatable and impactful. For example, stories of women navigating their identities in the workplace, education, or public life would provide a deeper understanding of their challenges and strategies to maintain their religious identity while integrating into secular society. These personal narratives could also highlight the resilience and adaptability of Shia Muslim women as they confront and navigate secular pressures.
Navigating these challenges requires British Shia Muslim women to balance their religious obligations with the demands of secular society. This might involve making decisions about how visibly they express their faith in public, such as whether to wear religious attire in the workplace or how to participate in religious practices that may be seen as out of step with secular norms. The pressure to conform to secular expectations can be significant, but many women find ways to assert their religious identity while navigating these challenges (Rizvi, 2013). This ability to adapt while remaining faithful to religious convictions is a hallmark of the resilience of British Shia Muslim women.
The critique of feminism within British Shia Muslim communities also plays a role in how these women navigate secularism. Many Shia Muslim women prefer to uphold religious teachings on gender roles rather than adopting feminist ideals, which they may see as contrary to their faith. This can lead to a cautious engagement with secular society, where women negotiate their public and private identities to align with their religious beliefs while engaging with the broader community (Momen, 1985). This approach allows them to maintain their religious integrity while finding ways to function effectively within a secular framework.
The influence of Iranian religious and political thought is also evident in how British Shia Muslim women navigate secularism. Iranian leaders often emphasize the importance of maintaining religious practices and gender roles in the face of Western secularism, encouraging women to resist the pressures to conform to secular norms. This influence reinforces the commitment of many Shia Muslim women to their religious values, even as they engage with the broader British society.
Identity and Community
American Evangelicals: Forming and Maintaining Religious Identity
For American Evangelical women, forming and maintaining their religious identity involves navigating the tension between their faith and secular culture. Women’s groups, online communities, and other support networks are crucial in helping Evangelical women maintain their religious beliefs and practices. These communities provide a space where women can discuss their faith, share experiences, and support one another in living out their beliefs in a secular world (Smith, 2014). The sense of community and mutual support in these groups is essential for many Evangelical women as they strive to live out their faith in challenging environments.
These networks are particularly important for Evangelical women who feel isolated or marginalized in secular environments. Through these communities, women can reinforce their religious identity and find strength in their shared beliefs, even as they engage with a culture that often challenges those beliefs (Gallagher, 2003). This support is crucial in helping Evangelical women navigate the complexities of modern life while staying true to their religious convictions.
For many Evangelical women, the critique of feminism is intertwined with their religious identity. By rejecting secular feminist ideals, these women reinforce their commitment to Biblical teachings on gender and family. This rejection often strengthens their ties to their religious community, where they find support for maintaining traditional gender roles in a world that increasingly values gender equality (Piper & Grudem, 1991). Reinforcing these traditional roles within supportive communities provides a buffer against the pressures of secular culture, allowing women to maintain a strong sense of identity.
Social media platforms also significantly influence how Evangelical women form and maintain their religious identities. These platforms allow for virtual communities where women can share resources, participate in discussions, and support one another in their faith journeys. However, these spaces can also be sites of tension, where secular and religious worldviews collide, making the process of identity formation more complex.
British Shia Muslims: Negotiating Dual Identities
British Shia Muslim women often experience a dual identity, balancing their religious and cultural heritage with British society's expectations. This negotiation of identity can be challenging, particularly in contexts like the workplace or educational institutions, where secular norms may conflict with religious practices (Ansari, 2011). The ongoing tension between these two aspects of identity requires careful navigation, especially in environments that may not fully understand or appreciate the importance of religious observance.
Community centers, mosques, and online platforms are vital in supporting Shia Muslim women’s identities and practices. These spaces provide a sense of belonging and continuity, helping women maintain their religious identity while navigating the demands of secular life. Through these communities, women can engage with their faith, participate in religious practices, and find support in balancing their dual identities (Rizvi, 2013). The availability of these support systems is crucial in helping women navigate the challenges of living in a secular society while maintaining a strong religious identity.
Critiques of feminism also influence how British Shia Muslim women navigate their dual identities. Many women within the community prefer to uphold traditional Islamic teachings on gender roles, viewing these as essential to their religious identity. This stance often involves a rejection of Western feminist ideals, which are seen as incompatible with Islamic values. By maintaining traditional roles within their families and communities, Shia Muslim women assert their religious identity while engaging with the broader secular society (Momen, 1985). This balance between religious adherence and societal engagement allows these women to navigate their dual identities with confidence and purpose.
The influence of Iranian religious thought also shapes how British Shia Muslim women understand their identities. Iranian leaders often promote a vision of Islam that emphasizes the importance of maintaining religious and cultural traditions in the face of secularism. This perspective encourages women to remain steadfast in their faith, even as they engage with a society that may not fully understand or support their religious practices.
Challenges and Criticisms
American Evangelicals: Responding to Internal and External Criticisms
Within the Evangelical community, there are ongoing debates over women’s roles, particularly in leadership, gender equality, and the influence of secular feminism. These debates often reflect broader societal tensions as Evangelical women navigate their roles within their religious communities and the secular world (Gallagher, 2003). The conversations within the community are dynamic, reflecting the evolving nature of gender roles and expectations in contemporary society.
Criticisms from within the community may focus on the need for greater equality and leadership opportunities for women, while external criticisms may challenge the perceived rigidity of traditional gender roles. Evangelical women respond to these criticisms in various ways, some advocating for change within the church and others reaffirming their commitment to traditional roles. The critique of feminism within the community often serves as a rallying point for those who seek to maintain traditional gender roles in the face of secular pressures (Piper & Grudem, 1991). These debates indicate the ongoing struggle to define and defend gender roles within the Evangelical community.
Moreover, the perception of feminism as a "secular religion" adds another layer to these debates. For many Evangelical women, this framing positions feminism as a competing ideology that seeks to undermine the authority of Scripture and traditional religious values. This perspective fuels the resistance to feminist ideals within the community, reinforcing the commitment to traditional gender roles and the defense of religious teachings against secular influences.
British Shia Muslims: Facing Stereotypes and Discrimination
British Shia Muslim women also face significant challenges, including stereotypes, discrimination, and the pressure to conform to secular norms. These challenges are often exacerbated by their visibility as Muslims, particularly for those who wear the hijab or other religious attire (Ansari, 2002). The intersection of religious identity and public perception adds layers of complexity to the experiences of these women in a secular society.
A 2018 report by the Islamic Human Rights Commission found that 60% of Muslim women in the UK had experienced Islamophobic abuse, with visible markers of their faith, such as the hijab, making them more likely to be targeted. This statistic underscores the challenges faced by British Shia Muslim women in maintaining their religious identity in a society that often views their faith with suspicion or hostility.
Criticisms from within the Muslim community may focus on issues like women’s rights and religious practices, while broader societal pressures may challenge their adherence to religious norms. British Shia Muslim women navigate these criticisms by asserting their religious identity while engaging with the broader society. This might involve challenging stereotypes, advocating for their rights, and finding spaces where they can practice their faith without compromise. Their critique of feminism plays a key role in this process, as many women choose to uphold traditional Islamic teachings on gender roles rather than adopting feminist ideals that are seen as conflicting with their faith (Momen, 1985). The careful negotiation of these issues reflects the broader challenges faced by religious minorities in maintaining their identities within a secular context.
The influence of Iranian religious leaders also influences how British Shia Muslim women respond to these challenges. Iranian leaders often promote a vision of Islam that emphasizes the importance of resisting Western secularism and maintaining traditional religious practices. This perspective reinforces the commitment of many Shia Muslim women to their faith, even in the face of societal pressures to conform to secular norms.
Comparative Analysis
Parallels and Differences
Both American Evangelical women and British Shia Muslim women face the challenge of balancing their religious duties with secular expectations. However, how they navigate these challenges varies significantly based on their unique religious and cultural contexts. Evangelical women often engage in debates over gender roles within their community, while Shia Muslim women may focus more on maintaining their religious practices in a secular environment.
Feminism critique is a common thread that influences how women in both communities respond to secular pressures. For Evangelical women, feminism is often seen as a threat to traditional Biblical teachings on gender roles. In contrast, for Shia Muslim women, it is viewed as incompatible with Islamic values that emphasize complementary roles within the family and community. Despite these critiques, both groups seek to maintain their religious identities while adapting to a secular society.
Iranian influence is another significant factor shaping the experiences of British Shia Muslim women. Iranian religious leaders often promote a vision of Islam that emphasizes the importance of maintaining traditional gender roles and resisting secular influences. This perspective reinforces the commitment of many Shia Muslim women to their faith, even as they engage with the broader British society.
Impact of Secular Culture
The impact of secular culture on these women profoundly influences how they practice their faith, form their identities, and engage with their communities. While American Evangelical women may struggle with the influence of secular feminism on traditional gender roles, British Shia Muslim women may face challenges in maintaining their religious practices in a society that often pressures them to conform to secular norms. Despite these differences, both groups demonstrate resilience and adaptability in navigating the complexities of living as religious women in secular cultures. Their ability to find common ground between their religious convictions and the demands of modern life speaks to their strength and determination.
Social media plays a crucial role in how both groups navigate these challenges. Online platforms provide spaces for discussion, support, and the sharing of resources, but they also amplify the tensions between secular and religious worldviews. For both Evangelical and Shia Muslim women, social media can be a double-edged sword, offering both opportunities for empowerment and challenges to their religious identities.
Conclusion
Women in American Evangelical and British Shia Muslim communities face unique challenges as they navigate their religious identities within secular societies. Whether grappling with internal debates over gender roles or confronting external pressures to conform to secular norms, these women find ways to maintain their faith and assert their identities.
As societal changes continue and religious teachings evolve, these women's experiences will likely change. The rise of digital communities, ongoing social movements, and shifts in religious teachings may offer new opportunities for these women to navigate their dual identities. These developments will undoubtedly shape how religious women engage with their faith and the secular world.
It is crucial to understand the nuanced ways religious women engage with their faith and the secular world. It highlights these communities' resilience and adaptability in the face of challenges, ensuring that their religious identities remain strong even in an increasingly secular world. The ongoing dialogue within these communities will continue to reflect the broader cultural shifts reshaping the landscape of religious life in the modern era.
References
Ansari, H. (2002). The infidel within: Muslims in Britain since 1800. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers.
Gallagher, S. K. (2003). Evangelical identity and gendered family life. Rutgers University Press.
Islamic Human Rights Commission. (2018). UK: Islamophobia studies yearbook 2018. Islamic Human Rights Commission.
Momen, M. (1985). An introduction to Shi'i Islam: The history and doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism. Yale University Press.
Orr, T. (2023). Feminism as a secular religion: Evangelical perspectives on gender roles. Journal of Religion and Culture, 47(2), 123-145.
Pew Research Center. (2021). Religious landscape study: Evangelical Protestants. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/religious-family/evangelical-protestant/
Piper, J., & Grudem, W. (1991). Recovering Biblical manhood and womanhood: A response to evangelical feminism. Crossway.
Rizvi, S. (2013). Muslim women in Britain: Demographics, religious observance and socio-economic standing. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 33(3), 370-388.
Smith, C. (2014). American evangelicalism: Embattled and thriving. University of Chicago Press.
Office for National Statistics. (2019). Muslim women's employment in the UK. Office for National Statistics. https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/religion/articles/muslimwomensemployment/2019-06-21